The history of rum in America is deeply intertwined with the labor and experiences of Black Americans, whose contributions, often forced and unacknowledged, were foundational to the spirit's early development and economic significance. From the arduous work on Caribbean sugar plantations that provided the raw material, to direct involvement in colonial American distilleries and its central role in the transatlantic slave trade, Black Americans were integral to shaping the rum industry from its nascent stages through to the post-slavery era.
The Roots in Sugar and Enslavement
Rum, a distilled alcoholic beverage derived from the by-products of sugar production, such as molasses, first emerged in the mid-seventeenth century on the island of Barbados. Its creation was a result of the convergence of Amerindian, African, and European knowledge of fermentation. By the 1650s, rum production became a crucial part of sugar plantations, and historical records indicate that by 1660, enslaved men of African descent constituted the majority of rum producers on the island. The labor on these sugar plantations was brutal, intensified by the hot climate, with enslaved Africans undertaking the arduous tasks of planting, fertilizing, cutting stalks, transporting cane to mills, crushing it for juice, and boiling it to crystallize sugar. It is highly probable that enslaved individuals were the first to develop the rum-making process by collecting the molasses, the “waste product” of sugar refining.
Colonial American Distilleries and Forced Labor
As early as the 17th century, American colonists discovered that imported Caribbean molasses could be transformed into a popular alcoholic beverage. This discovery spurred the growth of a local distilling industry, particularly in New England. By the early 18th century, colonies like Massachusetts and Rhode Island became deeply involved in an economic alliance with the sugar-producing West Indies, an alliance driven by the enslavement of Africans and the trade of raw materials, molasses, and rum.
Boston, in particular, rapidly developed as a rum capital, with its growth in the 17th century made possible by the labor of enslaved Africans. By the 1670s, as the Massachusetts distilling industry expanded, distillers began to acquire enslaved people to produce rum in their single-purpose distilleries located along the harbor. By 1750, Boston had 25 distilleries, a number that grew to 36 by 1770, with Massachusetts boasting 51 distilleries and producing over 40% of North America's total rum—more than 2 million gallons annually. Rhode Island also emerged as a significant rum-producing hub, with Newport having 22 rum distilleries at the peak of its involvement in the Triangle Trade, primarily located on harborside wharves. The capital generated from the import taxes on enslaved people even helped build infrastructure like roads, bridges, and wharves in cities like Newport.
The rum distilled in New England, described as cheap and strong, became highly sought after, even surpassing French brandy in demand in some African trading posts. This commercially produced American rum became America's first commercially produced spirit, creating an enduring demand that persists today.
Rum as the Lubricant of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
Rum quickly became a central component of the infamous Triangular Trade, a brutal economic cycle that profoundly impacted the lives of millions of Africans. Ships originating from New England ports, heavily laden with rum, sailed to West Africa. There, the rum was exchanged for enslaved Africans, who were then transported across the treacherous Middle Passage to the West Indies and the American colonies. These enslaved individuals were forced into labor on sugar plantations, producing the molasses that would, in turn, be shipped back to North America to be distilled into more rum, thus perpetuating the vicious cycle of exploitation and profit.
From approximately 1730 to 1808, the peak of the American slave trade, rum accounted for 85–90 percent of the value of all trade goods used by American merchants for acquiring captives in Africa. This made rum an indispensable cargo for colonial American slave ships, as slave traders found it profitable to spread a taste for liquor on the African coast. While some historians note that the total value of New England rum in the overall slave trade might have been a fraction of the cost of slaves, rum was crucial for New England's ability to participate in the trade at all, making it the region's first “cash cow”.
Rum and the Enslaved Community: Between Control and Resistance
Within the harsh realities of plantation life, rum held a complex significance for enslaved people. Planters often distributed rum as part of weekly rations, for medicinal purposes, or as a work incentive. This practice was rooted in the belief that rum could make enslaved individuals “happier and more docile,” encouraging them to work harder and accept their bondage, while also providing a momentary escape from the arduous labor. However, planters were also ambivalent, fearing that excessive drinking could foment insurrections.
Despite the planters’ intentions, enslaved peoples, drawing on diverse West African cultural traditions of alcohol use, integrated rum into their social lives and even resistance efforts. Rum drinking served as a component of sociability and a vehicle to the spiritual world, offering a temporary transcendence of the physical bonds of slavery. During the Age of Revolution, enslaved communities in the Caribbean utilized rum in their uprisings and conspiracies, with rum-based oath drinks used to cement alliances and strengthen rebel resolve.
A Shifting Landscape and Enduring Legacy
Following the American Revolution, rum production in the United States began to decline, gradually being replaced by whiskey and bourbon as the nation's preferred spirits. This shift was influenced by factors such as disruptions to molasses supplies and the growing availability of grains for whiskey production. The abolition of slavery in Massachusetts and later throughout the United States further changed the economic landscape, although the systemic challenges faced by Black Americans in accessing capital, land, and legal rights continued to limit their opportunities in industries like distilling.
During the Prohibition era (1920–1933), the term “rum-running” gained prominence, referring to the illegal smuggling of alcoholic beverages, particularly Caribbean rum, into the United States. While this period involved widespread illicit trade, specific documentation of Black Americans' roles as independent distillers or major figures in rum-running operations during this time is less prominent in historical records, though many likely participated in various capacities within the underground economy. The broader historical context of Prohibition and the Erasure of Black-Owned Distilling in America highlights the systemic challenges that impacted all aspiring distillers, particularly those from marginalized communities.
Despite these historical barriers, the foundational role of Black Americans in the earliest days of American distilling, including operating some of the country's first large-scale distilleries on plantations, is increasingly recognized. Today, Black entrepreneurs are actively reclaiming their space in the spirits industry, building new legacies and brands. The growing presence of Black-Owned Rum and the African and Caribbean Diaspora: Reclaiming a Complex Heritage signifies a contemporary movement to acknowledge, celebrate, and build upon a heritage that was long overlooked. Organizations and initiatives are working to empower Black talent across the wine and spirits sectors, ensuring that the contributions of Black Americans, past and present, are finally brought to light. For a broader understanding of Black American contributions to distilling, see also Black Americans in Distilling.
Sources
- Rum, Molasses, and Slavery in Boston - The West End Museum
- Frederick H. Smith — Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History (Part 1) - Medium
- Molasses Act of 1733 - Revolutionary War Journal